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Measurement Tutorial
REDUCING THERMAL VOLTAGES
4
4-9
f4-05.wmf
Figure 4-5. Burden Voltage Error Calculation
4-14. REDUCING THERMAL VOLTAGES
When making very low-level dc measurements, thermal voltages can present an
additional source of error. Thermal voltages are the thermovoltaic potentials generated at
the junction between dissimilar metals. Thermal voltages typically occur at binding posts
and can be greater than 10 µV.
Thermal voltages can also cause problems in the low dc and ohms ranges, particularly in
the 20 mV and 20Ω ranges. Some low-value resistors are constructed with dissimilar
metals. Just handling such resistors can cause thermal voltages large enough to introduce
measurement errors.
The effect of thermal voltages can be reduced by using the following techniques:
1. Use tight connections.
2. Use clean connections (especially free of grease and dirt).
3. Use similar metals for connections wherever possible (e.g., copper-to-copper, gold-
to-gold, etc.).
- Instruction Manual 1
- Table of Contents 3
- List of Tables 9
- List of Figures 11
- Contents 13
- Chapter 1 15
- 1-1. INTRODUCTION 16
- 1-3. OPTIONS AND ACCESSORIES 16
- 1-4. SPECIFICATIONS 17
- SPECIFICATIONS 19
- Operating Instructions 26
- 2-1. INTRODUCTION 27
- 2-2. INSTALLATION 27
- 2-5. Adjusting the Handle 28
- 2-6. Rack Mounting Kits 28
- 2-7. OPERATING FEATURES 29
- OPERATING FEATURES 30
- Function 31
- 2-10. Display Features 33
- 2-11. Error Messages 33
- 2-12. Overrange Indication 35
- 2-13. Diagnostic Self-Tests 35
- 2-14. Ranging 35
- 2-15. AUTORANGE 35
- 2-16. MANUAL RANGE 36
- 2-17. Triggering 36
- 2-19. EXTERNAL TRIGGER MODE 36
- 2-24. MAKING MEASUREMENTS 38
- 2-29. Offset Measurements 39
- 2-30. EXTERNAL CLEANING 40
- Remote Programming 42
- 3-1. INTRODUCTION 44
- 3-2. CAPABILITIES 44
- 3-3. BUS SET-UP PROCEDURE 44
- 3-5. A NOTE ABOUT EXAMPLES 47
- B1 Offset On 48
- PUT COMMAND FORMAT 49
- N <value> P0 49
- 3-7. Bn (Offset Commands) 50
- 3-9. Dn (Display Commands) 50
- 3-10. Fn (Function Commands) 51
- 3-11. Get Commands 51
- gain calibration 52
- 3-13. G1 (Get SRQ Mask) 53
- DEVICE-DEPENDENT COMMAND SET 54
- 3-17. G5 (Get IAB Status) 55
- 3-18. G6 (Get YW Status) 55
- 3-19. G7 (Get Error Status) 55
- 3-22. Put Commands 56
- 3-24. P1 (Put SRQ Mask) 57
- 3-27. Rn (Range Commands) 58
- 3-32. Yn (Suffix Commands) 60
- 3-33. Z0 (Self-Test Command) 60
- 3-36. INPUT SYNTAX 61
- 3-37. Definitions 62
- 3-38. Input Processing 62
- 200 PRINT @3, "F4" 64
- 300 INPUT @3, A 64
- 200 INPUT @3, A 65
- 300 PRINT @3, "F4" 65
- 200 INPUT @3, A 65
- 3-42. Types of Output Data 66
- 3-44. MEASUREMENT DATA 66
- 3-45. OVERRANGE INDICATION 67
- 3-46. ERROR MESSAGES 67
- 3-47. Status Data 67
- 3-48. Output Priority 67
- 3-49. SERVICE REQUESTS 68
- 3-51. The SRQ Mask 69
- 3-52. INTERFACE MESSAGES 70
- 3-56. TALK-ONLY MODE 71
- 3-57. REMOTE CALIBRATION 72
- 3-58. TIMING CONSIDERATIONS 72
- 3-59. IMMEDIATE MODE COMMANDS 72
- 3-60. EXAMPLE PROGRAMS 73
- EXAMPLE PROGRAMS 74
- (interface clear) 91
- 4-1. INTRODUCTION 93
- 4-2. DC VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT 93
- DC VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT 94
- 4-5. RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT 95
- 4-8. 4-Wire Ohms 96
- 4-10. TESTING DIODES 98
- 4-13. DC CURRENT MEASUREMENT 99
- Measurement Tutorial 100
- REDUCING THERMAL VOLTAGES 100
- 4-16. True RMS Measurement 101
- 4-17. Waveform Comparison 101
- 4-18. Crest Factor 103
- 4-21. Bandwidth 104
- 4-22. Zero-Input VAC Error 104
- MEASUREMENTS 106
- Theory of Operation 108
- 5-1. INTRODUCTION 110
- 5-4. DC SCALING 111
- DC SCALING 112
- 5-5. VDC Scaling 113
- 5-6. VDC Protection 114
- 5-7. mA DC Scaling 114
- 5-8. Analog Filter 114
- 5-9. TRACK/HOLD CIRCUIT 115
- TRACK/HOLD CIRCUIT 116
- 5-10. Track Configuration 117
- 5-11. Settling Configuration 118
- 5-12. Hold Configuration 118
- 5-15. OHMS CURRENT SOURCE 119
- 5-16. OHMS PROTECTION 120
- 5-17. OHMS FUNCTIONS 120
- 5-20. A/D CONVERTER 122
- 5-21. Timing/Data Control 124
- 5-22. Precision DAC 124
- 5-25. DISPLAY 125
- 5-26. KEYBOARD 126
- 5-27. DIGITAL CONTROLLER 126
- 5-28. In-Guard Microcomputer 128
- 5-31. Calibration Correction 130
- 5-35. GUARD CROSSING 131
- 5-36. POWER SUPPLY 132
- 5-38. Out-Guard Microcomputer 133
- 5-39. Guard Crossing 133
- 5-41. Signal Conditioning 134
- 5-44. VAC Scaling 134
- 5-45. mA AC Scaling 135
- A Message From 136
- PORTIONS REPRINTED 137
- Maintenance 138
- 6-1. INTRODUCTION 140
- 6-2. PERFORMANCE TEST 141
- local control 142
- PERFORMANCE TEST 144
- 6-6. Resistance Test 145
- 2 = 4 ½ digit counts 146
- 6-9. CALIBRATION 147
- 6-11. INITIAL PROCEDURE 148
- • Autoranging 149
- CALIBRATION 150
- 6-18. VERIFYING CALIBRATION 154
- 6-20. TOLERANCE CHECK 155
- 6-23. Remote Calibration 157
- 6-24. TIMING CONSIDERATIONS 160
- 6-25. REMOTE ERASURE 161
- 6-27. DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURE 162
- 6-28. Case Removal 163
- DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURE 164
- 6-31. Main PCA Removal 167
- 6-33. REASSEMBLY PROCEDURE 169
- REASSEMBLY PROCEDURE 170
- 05 Only) 173
- 6-36. TROUBLESHOOTING 173
- TROUBLESHOOTING 174
- 6-38. Diagnostic Self-Tests 178
- 6-39. Self-Test Descriptions 179
- 6-48. DISPLAY SYSTEM 185
- 6-59. ANALOG CONTROL SIGNALS 188
- 00000 11111 000000 000000 0 1 191
- 6-69. SERVICE POSITION 201
- 6-70. DIAGNOSTIC PROGRAM 201
- 6-72. SERVICE POSITION 203
- 6-73. MAJOR PROBLEMS 204
- 6-74. MORE OBSCURE PROBLEMS 206
- 6-76. INTERNAL CLEANING 207
- INTERNAL CLEANING 208
- List of Replaceable Parts 210
- 7-1. INTRODUCTION 212
- 7-2. HOW TO OBTAIN PARTS 212
- 7-4. NEWER INSTRUMENTS 213
- 7-5. SERVICE CENTERS 213
- SERVICE CENTERS 214
- Options and Accessories 230
- 8-1. INTRODUCTION 232
- 8-2. ACCESSORIES 233
- 8-10. Current Shunt (80J-10) 234
- Option –05 IEEE-488 Interface 236
- 805-3. EXTERNAL CONTROLS 238
- 805-4. INSTALLATION 238
- 805-1. INTRODUCTION 238
- 805-2. CAPABILITIES 238
- 805-6. MAINTENANCE 239
- LIST OF REPLACEABLE PARTS 240
- Option –09 True RMS AC 244
- 809-1. INTRODUCTION 246
- 809-2. INSTALLATION 246
- 809-3. OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS 247
- 809-4. MAINTENANCE 247
- Schematic Diagrams 252
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